Most Spanish weaving took place on the haciendas. The shepherd sheared the sheep and his family spun the yarn, dyed it, and wove it into the yard goods or blankets which were then taken to the Chihuahua trade fair in the winter to be sold or exchanged (Bailey and Haggard 1942:41). By the late 1830s, thousands of blankets were being woven every year and most of them were being sold in Chihuahua. In 1837 one family transported three sarapes, two fresadas, one colcha, and 37 varas of Sabanilla; another had 300 fresadas corrientes, 200 varas of gerga, and II sarapes atilmados; and still another 1,020 sarapes (MANM, 24:767, 798,801). The next year, 1838, in addition to quantities of yard goods there were more than 6,200 Spanish blankets and some 25 Indian blankets. Eight shipments consisted of less than 10 blankets, and there was one consignment of 1,100 sarapes (MANM:25). In 1840, there were almost 21,000 sarapes and fresadas listed including 16 sarapes labeled as "importantes." Several guias list fewer than 10 sarapes or fresadas, and one lists 2,300 sarapes corrientes, with other figures falling in between (MANM 28). This market continued beyond 1846 when the Americans took over New Mexico, but it is difficult to assess since we lack the appropriate trade records.

A second Market for Spanish woven goods existed in California. This market began in 1829 when a route was established from Abiquiu in New Mexico to the Los Angeles area of southern California (Hafen and Hafen 1954). The trade was started by New Mexicans, but within a short time American traders joined in the enterprise (Hafen and Hafen 1954:170). Originally, sarapes and fresadas were taken to exchange with the Indians of California for beaver skins and other peltry, but the blankets were traded to the Spanish rancheros for mules and horses (Hafen and Hafen 1954:171). In addition to the livestock, the New Mexicans sometimes carried back silk and other Chinese goods. On one occasion, Jim Waters brought home a load of Abalone shells to be traded to his Indians for beaver pelts (Hafen and Hafen 1954:189). The usual rate of exchange was two blankets for a horse or mule. The caravan normally consisted of about 200 men. Few records exist to show the magnitude of the trade, but the caravan of 1833-1834 took 1,645 sarapes, 341 fresadas, 171 colchas, and four tirutas (Hafen and Hafen 1954: 179). If this figure of about 2,100 blankets was near average, then over the years the trade existed some 40,000 Rio Grande blankets found their way into California. The last major caravan was in the winter of 1847-48 and consisted of 212 men and boys driving 150 mules laden with blankets and other goods, upon which they were required to pay duties (Hafen and Hafen 1954:191). Most of the mules acquired in this trade were driven across the plains to Missouri (Meining 1971:19).

With the opening of the Santa Fe trail in 1821, Spanish blankets and other woven goods went east. There had long been some trading of Indian and Spanish blankets to the various Indian tribes of the Great Plains. Now, furs, livestock, specie, and even some wool were received in payment for the cotton cloth and other goods transported across the Santa Fe trail by the Americans. "Occasionally, a few loads of coarse Mexican blankets, in some demand on the (Missouri) frontier, were imported" (Stephens 1971:303). Jerga was in common use for wrapping bales of cargo in the Santa Fe Trail trade as well as the California and Chihuahua trade.

The sale of Spanish blankets to the Plains tribes continued through mid-century. In the winter of 1858-59 "...the Dakotas bought Mexican blankets of John Richard, who brought many wagon-loads of the Mexicans" (Mallery 1893:569). Mallery's figure No.809, taken from the Winter- Count of Cloud Shield, depicts along striped blanket with fringe at the end, a distinctive Spanish trait.

After the United States took over control of New Mexico in 1846, a new customer for Spanish blankets appeared. This was the United States Government itself, through whatever group was currently in charge of Indian affairs. It had been customary for the Indian agents to give the leading men of the Southwestern tribes English Mackinaw blankets (USNA:T21-2), and this practice continued well into the 1870s (USNA:T21-2-19). Very quickly the government agents recognized that the locally woven Mexican blankets could be purchased and issued in quantities, not just to the head men but to most of the Indians except the Navajo who, after all, wove their own superior brand of blanket.

In July, 1853, Agent Benjamin J. Latz issued eight Mexican blankets to the Apaches and Comanches (USNA:T21-1). If this was, in fact, the first distribution, it was a small beginning for what became a major aspect of Indian-Government relations. The following year, Governor and Indian Superintendent Merriwether requested 600 Mexican blankets to be purchased in New Mexico. at $2 each. In November, 200 of these were issued to the Gila Apache (USNA:T21-25), with the rest, presumably, having been issued to the other Apaches, Utes, and Comanches. In February, 1855, Navajo agent Henry L. Dodge bought two Mexican blankets for his charges, and a little later merchant Henry Connelly offered the Indian Department 52 common Mexican blankets at $1.75 each and 36 good blankets for $2.50. The 36 good Mexican blankets were purchased to be delivered to the Gila Apache, and the common blankets were not purchased (USNA:T21-2).

From 1856 through 1874 a minimum of 21,946 Mexican blankets were purchased by the Indian Department for distribution to the Mogollon, Mimbres, Mescallero, Gila, Coyotero, and Jicarilla Apaches, to the Navajo (on two occasions), the Wiminuche, Tabahuache, Capote, and Moache Utes, Paiutes (only a few), and to the Pueblo Indians (USNA:T21-1-16; M234:547-567). Based on the numbers requested and the records of distribution, the actual number purchased for the Indians probably was something over 35,000 blankets during the 18-year period. In 1860 1,079 blankets were distributed to the Tabahuache and Moache Utes at Conejos Agency, and 1,280 were issued to the Capote Utes and the Jicarilla Apache at Abiquiu Agency. Distribution points included Forts Stanton, Union, Thorn, Camp Apache, agencies at Cimmaron, Abiquiu, Conejos, Ojo Caliente, Tecolote, Maxwell's Ranch, Bosque Redondo, and the Pueblo Agency in Santa Fe, as well as the Superintendency Office in Santa Fe where blankets were issued to visiting Indians (USNA:various).

Woman's dress, c. 1840-50, Anonymous Philadelphia collector

The vast majority of the blankets purchased by the Indian Department appears to have been woven in various villages in the Rio Arriba. Some of these were Abiquiu, El Rito, Tierra Amarillo, Cimmaron, Las Vegas, San Juan, and Plaza de Alcalde. There is no mention of a weaving center at Chimayo or of any in the Rio Abajo. Blankets were purchased in lots of something less than 100 up to 600, these quantities usually reflecting the output of a single weaver or a small group of weavers. When purchased from retailers in Santa Fe or Albuquerque, from one to 36 were bought (USNA:various). A crisis developed in 1870, when not enough blankets were woven to supply the needs of the Indian Department. "The people have stopped the manufacture of blankets, as it is more profitable to them to sell the wool" (USNA:M234-557). Only about 325 blankets were bought even though 2,500 had been requested (USNA:T21-11,12; M234:557). In 1871, only 800 to 2,300 blankets requested could be found and American commercial blankets were substituted for the others (USNA:T21-15; M234-558). American blankets were again used in 1872, but in 1873, 555 Mexican blankets were bought for the White Mountain Apache. Only 400 Mexican blankets are recorded for 1874. The end seems to have come in 1875, when a contract was let to furnish blankets with a thread count of at least four threads to the inch, but when the blankets supplied had only two "...simply carded rolls of wool without being spun or twisted," the blankets were rejected, and no more appear to have been requested (USNA:T21-16; M234-563, 567).

Between the coming of the railroads in the 1880s and the turn of the century, the Spanish-Mexican weaving of utilitarian textiles for the local market had practically ceased. Instead, the Hispanic weavers of the Rio Arriba became producers of anew category of decorative textiles, the Chimayo blankets, for tourist consumption.

The market share of weaving held by the western Pueblos appears to have continued into the 19th century with some modifications, for in a report on the mission in 1808, Custos Josef Pereyro stated that Laguna, Acoma, and Zuni (there was no mission in the Hopi villages) weave various items to "...clothe themselves, and to trade with the settlers and Indians of the other pueblos," and the Rio Grande pueblos had no "industries" besides planting (Boyd 1974:205-206). Boyd takes this to mean that the Rio Grande pueblos were no.. longer weaving at all. However, virtually every contemporary observer points out that these pueblos were in fact weaving for their own use, as did James in 1821 (James 1962:89), Gregg in 1844 (Gregg 1954:193), Meriwether in 1853 (USNA:M234-546), and others. According to research carried out among the Rio Grande pueblos in the 1930s by the late F. H. Douglas and published in a series of leaflets by the Denver Art Museum (Leaflets 89-95), most of them continued to weave blankets and other fabrics up until 1870 to 1890. The western pueblos continued to weave and to trade textiles well into the 20th century. However, today, aside from the weaving of sash belts for the curio trade, only the Hopis continue to weave to supply the other pueblos with ceremonial fabrics.

Pueblos trade with the Plains Indians continued to some extent. During the 1860s trading permits were issued to traders from Santa Clara and Santo Domingo to trade with the Comanche (USNA:T21-5, T21-6). We do not have inventories of the trade goods carried on these expeditions, but it is possible that Pueblo woven goods were taken along. In any case, for the most part the pueblos used their own blankets for everyday uses but traded for Navajo blankets to be used on dress up occasions (Stevenson 1904:372).

By early in the 19th century the Spanish government had succeeded so well in its encouragement of Navajo weaving that, in 1812, Pino (Bailey and Haggard 1942: 133) was led to state that "...their wool manufactures are the most valuable in. our province and in Sonora and Chihuahua." That is, in itself, a very interesting statement which raises the question, in what way were Navajo textiles the most valuable? It is clear from the export records that numerically Hispanic weaving far exceeded that of the Navajo. When 6,200 Spanish blankets were shipped to the Chihuahua fair in 1838, only 26 Indian textiles seem to have been taken. In 1840, almost 21,000 Spanish blankets were listed but no Indian blankets, unless the 16 "sarapes importantes" were in fact important Navajo sarapes (MANM:25, 28).

Woman's blanket, second phase, c. 1865-70. Anonymous Philadelphia collector

Many Navajo blankets were traded into the Great Plains. Chief Blankets were in particular demand by the Plains tribes and the Utes, finding their way as far north as the Blackfoot by 1833 (Bennett 1981:62-69). The winter of 1858-1859 was shown in a number of Winter Count paintings as "Many- Navajo-blankets winter" according to Mallery (1893:325; Fig. 415). The blankets were introduced by traders out of New Mexico.

The Navajo themselves carried on trade with some customers. W.C. Powell, who spent the winter of 1871-1872 in the Hopi villages trading for specimens for the government, mentions that from time to time Navajo traders come to trade blankets to the Hopi, and speaks of "...meeting now and then scattered bands of Navajos on trading expeditions, bound to the white (Mormon) settlements" (Powell 1948-49:480).

Most trade in Navajo blankets, however, was carried out by itinerant traders who exchanged various domestic goods for Navajo blankets. Navajo blankets were "...used as a medium of traffic with the itinerant traders from the Rio Grande" (Backus 1856:212). "There are no fixed traders among the Navajoes. The few sent to their country in 1851 and 1852, were itinerants with roving licenses" (Backus 1856:214). Typical was the expedition of August Lacome in 1852 (USNA:M234-546). Lacome took indigo, knives, copper wire, handkerchiefs, tobacco, coffee, lead (for bullets), shovels, copper pots, sugar, buffalo and elk hides, Mexican bayeta, and other goods, loaded on seven mules to trade with the Navajo. A month later Lacome returned with some unsold goods, six mules, six horses, 18 deer skins, and 70 blankets, assorted.

Throughout the American occupation and settlement of New Mexico and the Southwest, the Navajo blanket was considered to be a superior product, with a steady demand for all that could be obtained. There is, however, very little information on how many Navajo blankets were woven each year, especially for the earlier periods. In 1871 F. T. Bennett wrote to the Superintendent of Indian Affairs and estimated that "...the number of blankets made will probably average at least 6,000 a year" (USNA:M234-558). (photo) Woman's Blanket, Second Phase, 1865-1870. Anonymous Philadelphia Collection. When the Navajo returned to their home country after Bosque Redondo they had become accustomed to the wearing of commercial clothing or clothes made from the cotton and light wool fabrics provided by the Government. Over the years, less and less of their weaving effort was required to clothe themselves. New markets were needed. The seeds that finally led to the production of fabrics for sale to outsiders began at least as early as Bosque Redondo. In 1863, the Navajo Che and his wife Paulonia (Polonia) were not sent to the Bosque because Paulonia was employed by Lt. Col. Chavez to weave blankets (Kelly 1970:59). Twelve years later Major J. V. Lauderdale had Navajo weavers working for him at Ft. Wingate (Pepper n.d.). By the time that Don Lorenzo Hubbell and J. B. Moore began their work with the Navajo near the turn of the century, the Navajo had been supplying the curio trade for three decades.

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